What Is Forensic Psychology?

In recent years forensic psychology and related topics such as criminal profiling have been the subject of a whole host of books, films and television series. While this has undoubtedly raised the profile of forensic psychology, the subject has often been presented in a distorted, sensationalised and inaccurate way.

With this very much in mind, this article outlines what you need to be aware of in order to provide a satisfactory answer to the question, what is forensic psychology?

When my students arrived for their first lecture, I would always start by giving them 10 minutes to write down an answer to the question what is forensic psychology? Before reading on, why not quickly write down what you think forensic psychology is.

The reason I did this was because despite the fact that every single undergraduate psychology student (about 180 of them) chose to do the forensic psychology course, not one of them came to see me in advance to ask what the course was about. Now bear in mind students chose their optional courses well in advance of the start date, and in order to make an informed choice they were all strongly advised to speak to the lecturer running the courses they were interested in before making a final decision.

So why the no show?

I suspect, actually I know because I discussed it with the students afterwards, that they didn't feel they had to find out what forensic psychology is, because they already had a preconceived idea.

I mentioned that at the start of the first lecture I would give students 10 minutes to write down an answer to the question what is forensic psychology. What I didn't mention, however, is that after about 2 minutes I would ask for their attention and apologise for forgetting to tell them that they weren't allowed to use the words serial killers or silence of the lambs in their answer. It was usually as this point that most of the writing in the lecture theatre stopped.

If you're thinking I would have stopped writing as well, please contain your disappointment and don't rush off just yet. The answer to the question, what is forensic psychology may not quite be what you thought, but that doesn't mean that the subject has to be any less engaging.

The first thing to appreciate when addressing the question is that even psychologists in the field are divided as to what the answer is. The division of criminological and legal psychology within the British Psychological Society argued for twenty years as to whether their members should be entitled to call themselves Chartered Forensic Psychologists. It was finally agreed that they should, however, there still remains a great deal of debate and controversy surrounding the issue.

The central problem is that its members are drawn from a wide range of disciplines, so it is always difficult to state what the boundaries are when you talk of Forensic Psychology.

A fragmented discipline?

Psychologists in the prison/correctional services. Clinical psychologists in special hospitals & the psychiatric services. Educational psychologists. Occupational psychologists. Academics

Now while it is important to acknowledge that this fragmentation of role exists, it is just as important to realise that these different groups are linked to forensic psychology because their work, expert knowledge or research activity is somehow connected with the law.

This legal connection makes perfect sense when you consider that the word forensic comes from the Latin forensis, which literally means appertaining to the forum, specifically the imperial court of Rome. So in essence:

The debate as to what is and what isn’t forensic psychology rests primarily on the nature of psychology’s relationship with the legal system.

Let me give you an example, imagine 2 clinical psychologists meet at a conference and they begin talking about the work they do. The first psychologist tells the second that she recently gave expert testimony in court arguing that the defendant in a murder case was criminally insane; the judge and jury agreed and having been found guilty on the grounds of diminished responsibility the defendant was going to be sent to a secure psychiatric unit. Now there’s a coincidence the second psychologist says I work in the unit where they're sending him, so I’ll be dealing and treating this guy when he arrives.

So here you have a situation where two psychologists are linked to the legal system by way of a legal decision and you could argue, therefore, that both deserve to be seen as engaging in Forensic Psychology. However, there’s a crucial difference.

The first psychologist actually helped inform the legal decision based on her psychological knowledge and expertise. The second psychologists' involvement on the other hand arose as a consequence of a legal decision that she had no direct influence over.

My preferred forensic psychology definition acknowledges this key distinction, namely:

That branch of applied psychology which is concerned with the collection, examination and presentation of evidence for judicial purposes’ (Haward 1981).

If you adopt this definition you are stating categorically that Forensic Psychology relates to:

The provision of psychological information for the purpose of facilitating a legal decision (Blackburn 1996).

So in the case of our two psychologists, strictly speaking only the first can be said to be engaged in Forensic Psychology.

Not everybody would agree with this, because there is a school of thought that would claim that any activity that links psychology to the law deserves to be described as Forensic. I’m not going to try and convince you which is right, although I do have a strong opinion on the mater; the main thing is that you know that this debate exists.

Summary

In answering the question, what is forensic psychology we have discovered that:

In essence, forensic psychology refers to the application of psychology within a legal context.

The debate as to what is & what is not forensic psychology relates to the nature of this legal application & the level at which it is applied.

And this debate raises a number of questions that you need to think about. In particular:

The boundaries of forensic psychology?

The role of the forensic psychologist?

The credibility of forensic psychology.

To find out more about the fascinating world of forensic psychology visit www.all-about-forensic-psychology.com Forensic Anthropology Is Used In…

Forensic anthropology is the study of skeletal or evidentiary remains in relation to a case in a court of law. Anthropology is the study of human beings in both as an animalistic (physical) form as well as the study of social and habits of humans, usually by a process of examination of physical remains. Forensic refers to any of a given number of sciences used in the process of an investigation or proceeding before a court of law. Forensic anthropology has a long history dating back to the mid sixteenth century, but like most fields, recent advances in technology have propelled forensic anthropology to a whole new level.

Forensic anthropology is normally used when evidentiary remains are found that indicate a crime did or may have occurred. Sometimes, when old buildings are torn down or when old sections of a town are converted for whatever purpose remains will be found among the ruins. Forensic anthropologists are brought in to thoroughly investigate the scene. With the use of forensic anthropology, they can often determine whether or not a crime was committed, and if there was in fact a crime, forensic anthropology can then be used to solve it. While much of what is commonly seen on television is as much fantasy as it is reality, many aspects of forensic anthropology are growing exponentially.

Many new chemicals have aided in the growth of forensic anthropology. Chemicals help forensic anthropologists to do their job better and more effectively by helping them to gather and study evidence. There are chemicals for the illumination of bodily fluids, chemicals which define chemical components of evidence, chemicals that cleanse and chemicals that aid in many other ways in the field of forensic anthropology. As science progresses, so too will the assistance available in the field of forensic anthropology.

Advances in microscopic technology have also helped in the advancement of forensic anthropology. Microscopes can help the forensic anthropologist to define the minutest details in regards to a crime scene. Whether the particles are of a particular type of dust, plant or other matter, in many cases of forensic anthropology, this can place certain individuals at given locations often during specific time periods. This has been used in many civil and criminal cases scoring many court room victories which are credited to those individuals involved in the field of forensic anthropology.

Advances in science and technology are constantly improving the tools available in the field of forensic anthropology. These are very exciting times for the forensic anthropologist

HEALTH IN YOUR HANDS

If you want good health there are simple tips for it
1. Drink lots of water but not with food.
2. Eat 50 - 60% raw food if possible.
3. Take sprouted food.
4. Less salt in your food will solve all your health problems.
5. Take dry fruits and dates they give instant energy.
6. Avoid refined food it will open the root for new disease.
7. Avoid taking cloured foods becuase colour is very toxic.

FREE DAILY DIET PLANS

Free Daily Diet Plans are popping in your web search engines. You can hop from websites to websites that are promoting free daily diet plans that promise you to shed those unwanted pounds instantly. You might be trying their plan and then skip to another plan hoping to get better results. But this should not be the case. Diet plans should not be like what happens in laboratory experiments that when one does not work another trial must be taken. That can be dangerous for all we know because your health must be at risk. The safest way to apply any of these Free Daily Diet Plans is not to test all so that you will know which one works for you but to first educate yourself to things that you might run into.
Remember you are not the guinea pig in a lab. Take things with much precaution. What do I mean is that, first know what you need, know your body weight and find out your desired body weight to maintain. After that then it is time to plan for an appropriate calorie intake in order to achieve the desired weight. Losing weight is not only adapting the right diet plan but also the proper exercise must go with it too. Examine your body and find out which part needs shedding and toning. There are parts of our body that are just fine except of course if the condition needs real shaping. If that is the case, better consult your doctor first before moving on to diet plans. Your exercise regimen must be apt to what your body need, strenuous workout is probably not what is best for you but only a butt shaping or biceps toning. Long hours of physical exercise can only stress you out thus burn you out instead than burn your fats out. It will not achieve your purpose. Regular, we mean daily, but short exercise is wise than once or twice a week heavy physical exercise.
So what do you do after considering all these?
Then it is time to proceed to the Diet Plan, but before checking out and considering free daily diet plans, make the commitments and the discipline to carry on all that is in the diet plan, finalize your guidelines in following it, lest you will be bouncing back to your old body weight and will never move on to what you aim. Examples of this disciple and commitment guidelines is to eat what you can in moderation, never deprive yourself to food that you want to eat or else depravation most likely can cause you to drawback and tend to complement yourself which result to unwanted calorie intake. It is really a no-no to eat large meals, it is better to eat frequently 4 to 6 times than to starve yourself and overeat in a meal. Planning ahead and preparing your food can help you have a balance diet and prevent you from consuming more calories. I wish you the best of luck!

HISTORY OF STEMCELLS

•The history of the stem cell research had a benign in 1878 the first attempts were made to fertilize mammalian eggs outside the body.
•1900’s European researchers realised that the various type of blood cells e.g white blood cells, red blood cells and platelets all came from a particular ‘stem cell’. However, it was not until 1963 that the first quantitative descriptions of the self-renewing activities of transplanted mouse bone marrow cells were documented by Canadian researchers Ernest A McCulloch and James E Till.
•1959 first animals made by in-vitro fertilization.
•1960 Teratocarcnomas determined to originate from embryonic germ cells in mice.
•1968 the first human egg is fertilized in vitro.
•1970 EC cells injected into mouse blastocysts make chimeric mice.
•1978 the first IVF baby is born in England.
•1981 Mouse ES cells are derived form the inner cell mass of blastocysts.
•1984-88 Pluripotent, clonal cells called embryonal carcinoma cells are developed. When exposed to retinoic acid these cells differentiate into neuron_like cells and other type cells.

•1984-1988 Pluripotent, clonal cells called embryonic carcinoma cells are developed. When exposed to retinoic acid these cell differentiate into neuron-like cells and other cell types.
•1989 A clonal line of human embryonal carcinoma cells is derived that yields tissues from all three promary germ layers. They have limited replicative and differentiative capacity
•1994 Human blastocysts are generated and the inner cell mass is maintained in culture. ES like cells form in the center and retain stem cell like morphology.
•1995-96 Non human primate ES cells are maintained in vitro fro the inner cells mass of monkeys. These cells are Pluripotent and differentiate normally into all three primary germ layers.
• 1998 James Thomson Es cells from the inner cells mass of normal human blastocysts are cultured and maintained normally for many passages.
•2000 scientist derive human ES cells from the inner cell mass of blastocysts. They proliferation in vitro for a long time and form all three germ layers and teratomas when injected into immune deficient mice.
•2001 As human ES cell lines are shared and new lines are derived, more research groups are focusing attention on the differentiation of cells in vitro. Many methods focus on making human tissues for transplantation.

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The brain is the bedrock of consciousness, perception, memory, emotion, and self-awareness.
The Nervous System: A Basic Blueprint
The function of the nervous system is to gather and process information, produce responses to stimuli, and coordinate the workings of different cells. Scientists divide it into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS, which includes the brain and spinal cord, receives, processes, interprets, and stores information and sends messages destined for muscles, glands, and organs. The PNS transmits information to and from the CNS by way of sensory and motor nerves.
The Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems

How the Nervous System is Organized

The peripheral nervous system consists of the somatic nervous system, which permits sensation and voluntary actions, and the autonomic nervous system, which regulates blood vessels, glands, and internal (visceral) organs. The autonomic system usually functions without conscious control.
The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic nervous system, which mobilizes the body for action, and the parasympathetic nervous system, which conserves energy.
The Autonomic Nervous System

Communication in the Nervous System
Neurons are the basic units of the nervous system. They are held in place by glial cells, which nourish, insulate, and protect them, and in ways still not clearly understood, help them to function properly.
Different Kinds of Neurons

Each neuron consists of dendrites , a cell body, and an axon. In the peripheral nervous system, axons (and sometimes dendrites) are collected together in bundles called nerves. Many axons are insulated by a myelin sheath that speeds up the conduction of neural impulses and prevents signals in adjacent cells from interfering with one another.
Structure of a Neuron

Recent research has challenged two old assumptions: that neurons in the human central nervous system cannot be induced to regenerate and that no new neurons form after very early in life. In the laboratory, neurons have been induced to regenerate. And scientists have learned that stem cells in brain areas associated with learning and memory continue to divide and mature throughout adulthood. A stimulating environment seems to enhance this process of neurogenesis.
Communication between two neurons occurs at the synapse . Many synapses have not yet formed at birth. During development, axons and dendrites continue to grow as a result of both physical maturation and experience with the world, and throughout life, new learning results in new synaptic connections in the brain. Thus, the brain’s circuits are not fixed and immutable but are continually changing in response to information, challenges, and changes in the environment, a phenomenon known as plasticity.
When a wave of electrical voltage (action potential) reaches the end of a transmitting axon, neurotransmitter molecules are released into the synaptic cleft. When these molecules bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, that neuron becomes either more or less likely to fire. The message that reaches a final destination depends on how frequently particular neurons are firing, how many are firing, what types are firing, their degree of synchrony, and where they are located.
Neurotransmitter Crossing a Synapse

Through their effects on neural circuits, neurotransmitters play a critical role in mood, memory, and psychological well-being. Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters have been implicated in several disorders, including depression, Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease.
Endorphins, which act primarily as neuromodulators that affect the action of neurotransmitters, reduce pain and promote pleasure. Endorphin levels seem to shoot up when an animal or person is afraid or is under stress. Endorphins may also be linked to the pleasures of social contact.
Hormones, produced mainly by the endocrine glands, affect and are affected by the nervous system. Psychologists are especially interested in melatonin, which promotes sleep and regulates a "biological clock" that coordinates bodily rhythms; adrenal hormones such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, which are involved in emotions, and stress; and the sex hormones, which are involved in the physical changes of puberty, the menstrual cycle (estrogens and progesterone), sexual arousal (testosterone), and some nonreproductive functions—including, many researchers believe, mental functioning.
Mapping the Brain
Researchers study the brain by observing patients with brain damage, by using the lesion method with animals, and by using such techniques as electroencephalograms (EEGs), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), positron-emission tomography (PET scans), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
Brain scans reveal which parts of the brain are active during different tasks, but they do not tell us precisely what is happening, either physically or mentally, during the task. Thus, they do not automatically reveal "centers" for a particular function, and must be interpreted cautiously.
A Tour Through the Brain
All modern brain theories assume localization of function, although a particular area may have several functions and many areas are likely to be involved in any particular activity. In the lower part of the brain, in the brain stem, the medulla controls automatic functions such as heartbeat and breathing, the pons is involved in sleeping, waking, and dreaming, and the reticular activating system screens incoming information and is responsible for alertness. (RAS)
RAS

The cerebellum contributes to balance and coordination, and may also play a role in some higher mental operations.
The Human Brain

The thalamus directs sensory messages to appropriate higher centers. The hypothalamus
Thalamus

Hypothalamus

is involved in emotion and in drives associated with survival. It also controls the operations of the autonomic nervous system and sends out chemicals that tell the pituitary gland when to "talk" to other endocrine glands.
The limbic system is involved in emotions that we share with other animals, and it contains pathways involved in pleasure. Within this system, the amygdala is responsible for evaluating sensory information and quickly determining its emotional importance, and for the initial decision to approach or withdraw from a person or situation. The hippocampus has been called the "gateway to memory" because it plays a critical role in the formation of long-term memories for facts and events.
The Limbic System

Much of the brain’s circuitry is packed into the cerebrum, which is divided into two cerebral hemispheres and is covered by thin layers of cells known collectively as the cerebral cortex.
Lobes of the Cerebrum

The occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal lobes of the cortex have specialized (but partially overlapping) functions. The association cortex appears to be responsible for higher mental processes. The frontal lobes, particularly areas in the prefrontal cortex, are involved in social judgment, the making and carrying out of plans, and decision making.
The Two Hemispheres of the Brain
Visual Pathways

Studies of split-brain patients, who have had the corpus callosum cut, show that the two cerebral hemispheres have somewhat different talents, a phenomenon known as lateralization. In most people, language is processed mainly in the left hemisphere, which generally is specialized for logical, symbolic, and sequential tasks. The right hemisphere is associated with spatial–visual tasks, facial recognition, and the creation and appreciation of art and music. In most mental activities, however, the two hemispheres cooperate as partners, with each making a valuable contribution.
Divided Brain, Divided View

Two Stubborn Issues in Brain Research
One of the oldest questions in the study of the brain is where the "self" resides. Many brain researchers and cognitive scientists believe that a unified self may be something of an illusion. Some argue that the brain operates as a collection of independent modules or mental systems, perhaps with one of them functioning as an "interpreter." But much remains to be learned about the relationship between the brain and the mind.
Gender and the Brain

Scholars in the new field of neuroethics are raising questions about the implications of “cognitive enhancement” and the potential misuse of brain scanning techniques. In evaluating research on the brain and behavior, it is important to remember that findings about the brain are most illuminating when they are integrated with psychological and cultural ones.
Copyright © 1995-2008, Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice HallLegal and Privacy Terms

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Cyclic forms of monosaccharides

-Carb-5. Cyclic forms and their representation
2-Carb-5.1. Ring size
Most monosaccharides exist as cyclic hemiacetals or hemiketals. Cyclic forms with a three-membered ring are called oxiroses, those with a four-membered ring oxetoses, those with a five-membered ring furanoses, with a six-membered ring pyranoses, with a seven-membered ring septanoses, with an eight-membered ring octanoses, and so on. To avoid ambiguities, the locants of the positions of ring closure may be given; the locant of the carbonyl group is always cited first, that of the hydroxy group second (for relevant examples of this see 2-Carb-6.4). Lack of ring size specification has no particular implication.
Note. The 'o' of oxirose, oxetose, and octanose is not elided after a prefix ending in 'o'.
Example:
Nonooctanose, not nonoctanose.
If it is to be stressed that an open-chain form of an aldose is under consideration, the prefix 'aldehydo-' may be used. For ketoses, the prefix is 'keto-'
2-Carb-5.2. The Fischer projection
If a cyclic form of a sugar is to be represented in the Fischer projection, a long bond can be drawn between the oxygen involved in ring formation and the (anomeric) carbon atom to which it is linked, as shown in the following formulae for cyclic forms of α-D-glucose (see 2-Carb-6 for the meaning of α and β):
α-D-Glucooxirose
α-D-Glucooxetose
α-D-Glucofuranose
α-D-Glucopyranose
α-D-Glucoseptanose
2-Carb-5.3. Modified Fischer projection
To clarify steric relationships in cyclic forms, a modified Fischer projection may be used. The carbon atom bearing the ring-forming hydroxy group, C-n (C-5 for glucopyranose) is rotated about its bond to C-(n - 1) (C-4 for glucopyranose) in order to bring all ring atoms (including the oxygen) into the same vertical line. The oxygen bridge is then represented by a long bond; it is imagined as being behind the plane of the paper. Examples are given below.
α-D-Glucopyranose
2,3,5,6-Tetra-O-acetyl-α-D-galactofuranose
β-L-Fucopyranose
β-D-Fructofuranose
Thus the trans relationship between the hydroxymethyl group and the C-1 hydroxy group in α-D-glucopyranose, and the cis relationship between the methyl group and the C-1 hydroxy group in β-L-fucopyranose, are clearly shown. Note that representation of ketoses may require a different modification of the Fischer projection, as shown in the fructofuranose example above. Here C-2 is rotated about the bond with C-3 to accommodate the long bond to C-2 from the oxygen at C-5.
2-Carb-5.4 The Haworth representation
This is a perspective drawing of a simplified model. The ring is orientated almost perpendicular to the plane of the paper, but viewed from slightly above so that the edge closer to the viewer is drawn below the more distant edge, with the oxygen behind and C-1 at the right-hand end. To define the perspective, the ring bonds closer to the viewer are often thickened.
The following schematic representation of pyranose ring closure in D-glucose shows the reorientation at C-5 necessary to allow ring formation; this process corresponds to the change from Fischer to modified Fischer projection.
Haworth representation of D-glucopyranose
The orientation of the model described above results in a clockwise numbering of the ring atoms. Groups that appear to the right of the modified Fischer projection appear below the plane of the ring; those on the left appear above. In the common Haworth representation of the pyranose form of D-aldohexoses, C-6 is above the plane.
Generally, the configuration at the centre that yields the ring oxygen determines whether the rest of the carbon chain is below or above the plane of the ring.
Examples (for the use of α and β see 2-Carb-6):
Fischer modified Fischer Haworthβ-L-Arabinofuranose representations
β-D-Ribopyranose
β-D-Ribofuranose 5-phosphate
α-D-Fructopyranose
α-D-Fructofuranose 1,6-bisphosphate
Methyl α-D-glucoseptanoside
Methyl α-L-altrooxetoside
Methyl β-D-allooxiroside
Note. In writing Haworth formulae, the H atoms bound to the carbon atoms of the ring are often omitted to avoid crowding of the lettering in the ring. For the sake of clarity, the form with H atoms included is preferred in this document.
2-Carb-5.5. Unconventional Haworth representations
It is sometimes desirable to draw Haworth formulae with the ring in other orientations (see Chart II), when there are bulky substituents to be represented, or when linkages in oligo- or poly-saccharides are to be shown. If the ring is inverted [as in (g)-(l)], the numbering runs counterclockwise.
Chart II. β-D-Glucopyranose in the twelve possible Haworth representations(the hydrogen atoms are frequently omitted)
2-Carb-5.6. The Mills depiction
In some cases, particularly where additional rings are present, structural formulae can be clarified by use of the Mills depiction. Here the main hemiacetal ring is drawn in the plane of the paper; dashed bonds denote substituents below this plane, and thickened bonds those above.
Examples:
1,2:3,4-Di-O-isopropylidene-α-D-galactopyranose
D-Glucaro-1,4:6,3-dilactone
2-Carb-5.7. Depiction of conformation
The Haworth representation implies a planar ring. However, monosaccharides assume conformations that are not planar: these may be represented by Haworth conformational formulae. The nomenclature of conformations is described in 2-Carb-7. For example, β-D-glucopyranose assumes a chair conformation:
β-D-Glucopyranose in a chair conformation
Note. The hydrogen atoms bonded to carbon are frequently omitted, but their inclusion may be necessary to make a stereochemical point.
2-Carb-5.8. Conformations of acyclic chains
Conformational depictions of acyclic sugar chains are conveniently expressed by locating certain atoms in the plane of the paper and orientating the remaining atoms or groups appropriately above and below that plane, as shown for D-arabinitol and xylitol (it should be recognized that the favoured conformation does not necessarily have all the carbon atoms in the same plane):
D-Arabinitol
Xylitol

Historical devlopemnt of nomenclature of carbohydrates

In the early nineteenth century, individual sugars were often named after their source, e.g. grape sugar (Traubenzucker) for glucose, cane sugar (Rohrzucker) for saccharose (the name sucrose was coined much later). The name glucose was coined in 1838; Kekulé in 1866 proposed the name 'dextrose' because glucose is dextrorotatory, and the laevorotatory 'fruit sugar' (Fruchtzucker, fructose) was for some time named 'laevulose' (American spelling 'levulose'). Very early, consensus was reached that sugars should be named with the ending '-ose', and by combination with the French word 'cellule' for cell the term cellulose was coined, long before the structure was known. The term 'carbohydrate' (French 'hydrate de carbone') was applied originally to monosaccharides, in recognition of the fact that their empirical composition can be expressed as Cn(H2O)n. However the term is now used generically in a wider sense (see 2-Carb-1.1).
2-Carb-0.2. The contribution of Emil Fischer
Emil Fischer [16] began his fundamental studies on carbohydrates in 1880. Within ten years, he could assign the relative configurations of most known sugars and had also synthesized many sugars. This led to the necessity to name the various compounds. Fischer and others laid the foundations of a terminology still in use, based on the terms triose, tetrose, pentose, and hexose. He endorsed Armstrong's proposal to classify sugars into aldoses and ketoses, and proposed the name fructose for laevulose, because he found that the sign of optical rotation was not a suitable criterion for grouping sugars into families.
The concept of stereochemistry, developed since 1874 by van't Hoff and Le Bel, had a great impact on carbohydrate chemistry because it could easily explain isomerism. Emil Fischer introduced the classical projection formulae for sugars, with a standard orientation (carbon chain vertical, carbonyl group at the top); since he used models with flexible bonds between the atoms, he could easily 'stretch' his sugar models into a position suitable for projection. He assigned to the dextrorotatory glucose (via the derived glucaric acid) the projection with the OH group at C-5 pointing to the right, well knowing that there was a 50% chance that this was wrong. Much later (Bijvoet, 1951), it was proved correct in the absolute sense.
Rosanoff in 1906 selected the enantiomeric glyceraldehydes as the point of reference; any sugar derivable by chain lengthening from what is now known as D-glyceraldehyde belongs to the D series, a convention still in use.
2-Carb-0.3. Cyclic forms
Towards the end of the nineteenth century it was realized that the free sugars (not only the glycosides) existed as cyclic hemiacetals or hemiketals. Mutarotation, discovered in 1846 by Dubrunfaut, was now interpreted as being due to a change in the configuration of the glycosidic (anomeric) carbon atom. Emil Fischer assumed the cyclic form to be a five-membered ring, which Tollens designated by the symbol <1,4>, while the six-membered ring received the symbol <1,5>.
In the 1920s, Haworth and his school proposed the terms 'furanose' and 'pyranose' for the two forms. Haworth also introduced the 'Haworth depiction' for writing structural formulae, a convention that was soon widely followed.
2-Carb-0.4. Nomenclature commissions
Up to the 1940s, nomenclature proposals were made by individuals; in some cases they were followed by the scientific community and in some cases not. Official bodies like the International Union of Chemistry, though developing and expanding the Geneva nomenclature for organic compounds, made little progress with carbohydrate nomenclature. The IUPAC Commission on Nomenclature of Biological Chemistry put forward a classification scheme for carbohydrates, but the new terms proposed have not survived. However in 1939 the American Chemical Society (ACS) formed a committee to look into this matter, since rapid progress in the field had led to various misnomers arising from the lack of guidelines. Within this committee, the foundations of modern systematic nomenclature for carbohydrates and derivatives were laid: numbering of the sugar chain, the use of D and L and α and β, and the designation of stereochemistry by italicized prefixes (multiple prefixes for longer chains). Some preliminary communications appeared, and the final report, prepared by M.L. Wolfrom, was approved by the ACS Council and published in 1948 [17].
Not all problems were solved, however, and different usages were encountered on the two sides of the Atlantic. A joint British-American committee was therefore set up, and in 1952 it published 'Rules for Carbohydrate Nomenclature' [18]. This work was continued, and a revised version was endorsed in 1963 by the American Chemical Society and by the Chemical Society in Britain and published [19]. The publication of this report led the IUPAC Commission on Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry to consider the preparation of a set of IUPAC Rules for Carbohydrate Nomenclature. This was done jointly with the IUPAC-IUB Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature, and resulted in the 'Tentative Rules for Carbohydrate Nomenclature, Part I, 1969', published in 1971/72 in several journals [1]. It is a revision of this 1971 document that is presented here. In the present document, recommendations are designated 2-Carb-n, to distinguish them from the Carb-n recommendations in the previous publication.
2-Carb-1. Definitions and conventions
2-Carb-1.1. Carbohydrates
The generic term 'carbohydrate' includes monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides as well as substances derived from monosaccharides by reduction of the carbonyl group (alditols), by oxidation of one or more terminal groups to carboxylic acids, or by replacement of one or more hydroxy group(s) by a hydrogen atom, an amino group, a thiol group or similar heteroatomic groups. It also includes derivatives of these compounds. The term 'sugar' is frequently applied to monosaccharides and lower oligosaccharides. It is noteworthy that about 3% of the compounds listed by Chemical Abstracts Service (i.e. more than 360 000) are named by the methods of carbohydrate nomenclature.
Note. Cyclitols are generally not regarded as carbohydrates. Their nomenclature is dealt with in other recommendations [8,9].
2-Carb-1.2. Monosaccharides
Parent monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehydes H-[CHOH]n-CHO or polyhydroxy ketones H-[CHOH]n-CO-[CHOH]m-H with three or more carbon atoms.
The generic term 'monosaccharide' (as opposed to oligosaccharide or polysaccharide) denotes a single unit, without glycosidic connection to other such units. It includes aldoses, dialdoses, aldoketoses, ketoses and diketoses, as well as deoxy sugars and amino sugars, and their derivatives, provided that the parent compound has a (potential) carbonyl group.
1.2.1. Aldoses and ketoses
Monosaccharides with an aldehydic carbonyl or potential aldehydic carbonyl group are called aldoses; those with a ketonic carbonyl or potential ketonic carbonyl group, ketoses.
Note. The term 'potential aldehydic carbonyl group' refers to the hemiacetal group arising from ring closure. Likewise, the term 'potential ketonic carbonyl group' refers to the hemiketal structure (see 2-Carb-5).
1.2.2. Cyclic forms
Cyclic hemiacetals or hemiketals of sugars with a five-membered (tetrahydrofuran) ring are called furanoses, those with a six-membered (tetrahydropyran) ring pyranoses. For sugars with other ring sizes see 2-Carb-5.
2-Carb-1.3. Dialdoses
Monosaccharides containing two (potential) aldehydic carbonyl groups are called dialdoses (see 2-Carb-9).
2-Carb-1.4. Diketoses
Monosaccharides containing two (potential) ketonic carbonyl groups are termed diketoses (see 2-Carb-11).
2-Carb-1.5. Ketoaldoses (aldoketoses, aldosuloses)
Monosaccharides containing a (potential) aldehydic group and a (potential) ketonic group are called ketoaldoses (see 2-Carb-12); this term is preferred to the alternatives on the basis of 2-Carb-2.1.1 (aldose preferred to ketose).
2-Carb-1.6. Deoxy sugars
Monosaccharides in which an alcoholic hydroxy group has been replaced by a hydrogen atom are called deoxy sugars (see 2-Carb-13).
2-Carb-1.7 Amino sugars
Monosaccharides in which an alcoholic hydroxy group has been replaced by an amino group are called amino sugars (see 2-Carb-14). When the hemiacetal hydroxy group is replaced, the compounds are called glycosylamines.
2-Carb-1.8. Alditols
The polyhydric alcohols arising formally from the replacement of a carbonyl group in a monosaccharide with a CHOH group are termed alditols (see 2-Carb-19).
2-Carb-1.9. Aldonic acids
Monocarboxylic acids formally derived from aldoses by replacement of the aldehydic group by a carboxy group are termed aldonic acids (see 2-Carb-20).
2-Carb-1.10. Ketoaldonic acids
Oxo carboxylic acids formally derived from aldonic acids by replacement of a secondary CHOH group by a carbonyl group are called ketoaldonic acids (see 2-Carb-21).
2-Carb-1.11. Uronic acids
Monocarboxylic acids formally derived from aldoses by replacement of the CH2OH group with a carboxy group are termed uronic acids (see 2-Carb-22).
2-Carb-1.12. Aldaric acids
The dicarboxylic acids formed from aldoses by replacement of both terminal groups (CHO and CH2OH) by carboxy groups are called aldaric acids (see 2-Carb-23).
2-Carb-1.13. Glycosides
Glycosides are mixed acetals formally arising by elimination of water between the hemiacetal or hemiketal hydroxy group of a sugar and a hydroxy group of a second compound. The bond between the two components is called a glycosidic bond.
For an extension of this definition, see 2-Carb-33.
2-Carb-1.14. Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are compounds in which monosaccharide units are joined by glycosidic linkages. According to the number of units, they are called disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, pentasaccharides etc. The borderline with polysaccharides cannot be drawn strictly; however the term 'oligosaccharide' is commonly used to refer to a defined structure as opposed to a polymer of unspecified length or a homologous mixture. When the linkages are of other types, the compounds are regarded as oligosaccharide analogues. (See 2-Carb-37.)
Note. This definition is broader than that given in [6], to reflect current usage.
2-Carb-1.15. Polysaccharides
'Polysaccharide' (glycan) is the name given to a macromolecule consisting of a large number of monosaccharide (glycose) residues joined to each other by glycosidic linkages. The term poly(glycose) is not a full synonym for polysaccharide (glycan) (cf. [20]), because it includes macromolecules composed of glycose residues joined to each other by non-glycosidic linkages.
For polysaccharides containing a substantial proportion of amino sugar residues, the term polysaccharide is adequate, although the term glycosaminoglycan may be used where particular emphasis is desired.
Polysaccharides composed of only one kind of monosaccharide are described as homopolysaccharides (homoglycans). Similarly, if two or more different kinds of monomeric unit are present, the class name heteropolysaccharide (heteroglycan) may be used. (See 2-Carb-39.)
The term 'glycan' has also been used for the saccharide component of a glycoprotein, even though the chain length may not be large.
The term polysaccharide has also been widely used for macromolecules containing glycose or alditol residues in which both glycosidic and phosphate diester linkages are present.
2-Carb-1.16. Conventions for examples
1.16.1. Names of examples are given with an initial capital letter (e.g. 'L-glycero-β-D-gluco-Heptopyranose') to clarify the usage in headings and to show which letter controls the ordering in an alphabetical index.
1.16.2. The following abbreviations are commonly used for substituent groups in structural formulae: Ac (acetyl), Bn or PhCH2 (benzyl), Bz or PhCO (benzoyl), Et (ethyl), Me (methyl), Me3Si (not TMS) (trimethylsilyl), ButMe2Si (not TBDMS) (tert-butyldimethylsilyl), Ph (phenyl), Tf (triflyl = trifluoromethanesulfonyl), Ts (tosyl = toluene-p-sulfonyl), Tr (trityl).

TIPS FOR GOOD हैल्थ टिप्स फॉर गुड हैल्थ

1। EARLY TO BED AND EARLY RAISE.
2. TAKE PLEANTY OF WATER AND MOVE HEAR AND THERE TILL YOUR BOULS ARE CLEAN.
3. TAKE WHEAT GRASS JUICE, TABLET, OR POWDER WITH HONEY AND LEMON IF YOU ARE NOT DIABETIC IN CASE OF DIABETIC TAKE WITH BUTTERMILK.
4. WAIT FOR ONE HOUR TAKE LEMON AND HONEY WATER.
5. TAKE SPROUTED FOOD RAW OR PREPARED IT WILL GIVE ENERGY TO REGENERATE.
6. EAT UNPOLISHED RICE IN AFTER NOON OR WHEAT PAN CAKES.
7. EAT FOOD EARLY IN THE NIGHT IF YOU TEKE ONLY FRUITS ITS VERY GOOD.
IF YOU CANNOT TAKE FRUITS THAN TAKE THE RAW VEGITABLES.
IF NOT POSSIBLE TAKE PHULKAS WITH GOOD AMOUNT OF COOKED VEGITABLE WITH VERY LESS SALT.
8. DO YOGA OR SOME EXERCISE WHIC EVER IS POSSIBLE.
9. DRINK PLEANTY OF WATER WHEN YOUR STOMUCH IS EMPTY THAT WILL PURIFY YOUR BLOOD
10. DONT TAKE PLENTY OF WATER WITH FOOD IT WILL TAKE LONG TIME TO DIGEST AND LOTS OF ENERGY IS WASTED.
11. PLEASE FOLLOW THESE TIPS SLOWLY DONT CHANGE YOUR LIFE STYLE IMMEDIATLY TRY TO DO IT SLOWLY BUT SURLY YOU WILL IMPROVE.

DO THESE THINGS TO BE HEALTHY
1. AVOID REFINED FOOD.
2. AVOID PROCESSED FOOD.
3. COOL DRINKS ARE VERY HARMFULL. WHEN FEEL THIRSTY DRINK WATER IT WILL CURE YOUR TOXINS COOL DRINKS WILL INCREASE YOUR TOXINS.
INSTEAD OF BUYING A COOLDRINK YOU CAN BUY WATER BOTTLE WHICH WILL MAKE YOU MORE REFRESH.
4. WHEN YOUR TIRED TAKE HONEY WATER FOR INSTANT REFRESHMENT.
5. ALWAYS THINK POSITIVE IN NEGETIVE THINGS BECAUSE THEY WILL HURT YOU NOT YOUR ENEMY ( NEGATIVE THINKINGS)

Stop Feeling Guilty About Your Weight

Do you believe that “eating fat makes you fat”? Well it just isn’t true and I want to help anyone who is overweight, all seniors in particular, to learn how they can lose as much as 20% of those unwanted pounds over a 12 week period and keep them off.
Eating beef, cheese, eggs, poultry and other dairy products should be a path to lifelong weight control but only if they contain one very important fat that has a slimming effect on the body, and that is conjugated linoliec acid [CLA for short] which is one of the essential fatty acids [EFA’s for short]. When the fats we eat contain CLA they are converted into muscle and energy but without CLA they are simply stored as more fat cells.
So where is the CLA that should be in these foods? Many other countries have an abundance of CLA in their foods but in North America the CLA content has fallen to almost nothing. And since our bodies can’t produce it on our own --- and it is essential --- where do we get it?
Ever since farmers started feeding cattle in feed lots where they got only processed packaged grains with added vitamins instead of grazing them on fresh natural grasslands, the CLA content has slowly depleted. In Australia, for instance, where cattle and poultry still graze on free range the CLA content is 400% higher than ours.
Have you tried the high protien/low carbohydrate diet and lost some or a lot of weight? But what happened when you got off it? Did you gain the weight back faster than it took to lose it. Your body needs fresh air, clean water, sunshine and exercise ---- but it also needs a balance of protiens, carbohydrates and fats or in other words, EFA’s also called vitamin F, particularly omega-3 fatty acids [found in flax oil, fish, wheat germ, pumpkin seeds and walnuts] and omega –6 fatty acids [found in safflower, sunflower, canola, soybeans, sesame seeds and pine nuts].
There are now many forms of EFA’s available but most of them have an equal balance of omegas 3, 6 and 9 and our diets already get an abundance of omega-6 due to the feeding practices of the animals and poultry that no longer free range. Omega-9 can be found in virgin olive oil which you should try to supplement your diet with to help balance the omega-6 that is found in almost all other oils that are used for frying foods. Avoid other oils that are high in only omega-6, and throw away that margarine!
Some omega-3 rich foods are eggs [preferably free range] salmon, trout, catfish and shrimp but they are now being fed omega-6 rich grains and byproducts. Flax seed oil and crushed flax seed is one of the best sources of omega-3 oil. To insure you get enough omega-3 you can take CLA capsules in a form called tonalin. Each sofgel contains 1000mg of safflower oil, 750 mg of which is CLA. Be sure you get the conjgated tonalin from Safflower oil. Taking 4 per day will give you the recommended 3000 mg of CLA. You can find them at your local health food store.
If you don’t need to lose weight there are other great benefits from CLA. It has a significant impact on cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and bone and joint health. It may reduce tumor growth and slow prostate and breast cancers. It improves immune system response to attack and inhibits harmful inflammation such as arthritis and also increases muscle mass.
On my blog, I give you information on working from home as a retirement way to supplement your income or simply find an enjoyable hobby to pursue. I suggest you work diligently at weight reduction if it is a problem for you as work-at-home projects tend to aggravate the weight problem due to easy access to food and a sedentary life style. It is to your benefit to make these later years as comfortable as possible and may you have many of them.

Best Diet - 3 Key Features Your Diet Must Have For Weight Loss Success

So you've made the resolution that THIS is the year you're going to lose weight and get in the best shape of your life. You're not going to settle for second best - you're going to achieve that dream body you've always wanted.
Great news - this is actually the best time to make that commitment. Why? Because you can take advantage of the powerful momentum and energy a New Year brings to achieve your weight loss dreams.
But there's nothing worse than committing to lose weight, only to get lost among the 5 gazillion diets out there. It can get confusing - you may end up wasting a lot of money and effort. You may end up wondering which diet is really the BEST diet for you.
You may even end up feeling so frustrated that you give up on your dream of becoming slim and healthy. But it doesn't have to be that way.
In order to have rapid weight loss success, you have to find the best diet for you (a.k.a. the diet that will speed you towards your dream body at lightning pace). There are millions of diets - but only a few that are best for you and your lifestyle.
The best diet for you will have the 3 key features listed below. Choose your diet with these 3 key features in mind and you're already halfway to your weight loss dreams.
#1 Proven Success Rate
Are there before and after pictures of people who have lost weight with that particular diet? Are there customer testimonials? Have there been independent studies done on the diet's success rate?
The diet you choose doesn't have to have all three of these but try to find at least some kind of proven success rate before choosing that particular program. Finding a diet with a proven success rate not only lets you know that the diet works but it also helps give you the confidence that the diet will work FOR YOU.
Confidence is one of the most underrated factors in a successful weight loss program. If you've tried and failed with diets before you especially need that extra boost of confidence to carry you through the more difficult times in the diet. By reminding yourself that this diet has been proven to work - you'll be able to keep going and reach your weight loss goals.A related feature that gets extra points is if the diet has been recommended by an expert or a physician. Again this boosts your confidence that the diet is safe and effective.
#2 Affordable
Losing weight should not cost you thousands of dollars (unless we're talking about surgery here and that's an entirely different article). The best diet will be affordable for the average person.
If the diet costs too much, be very suspicious and look elsewhere. There are too many shady diets out there and as a consumer, it pays to be cautious. I'll give you an example of what I mean:
A close friend of mine went to a well-known weight loss clinic in our area and was told she had to pay the yearly fees up front (around $1000 NOT including food). They also told her she had to buy their food in bulk (like $500 for a year's worth of chocolate).
When the chocolate gave her heart palpitations and she had to take it back, they told her it was non-refundable. She was out the money for the chocolate. Plus, she feels she can't leave the program because she's paid the yearly fees (which, you guessed it, are also non-refundable).
She unfortunately made the mistake of ignoring her instincts and paying way too much money for a diet program. If you notice you're being asked for hefty fees right out of the gate, warning lights should be flashing in your mind.
Now on the other hand, the best diet WILL cost you something. It actually is better if you put some cash on the table for your diet program. Why? Because when we invest in something we're more likely to stick with it. When we invest in something we are more likely to follow through and get the results we want.
For example I did a liver detox several months ago. I'm not really into liver detoxing but I read an article and figured I'd try it.
The detox kit cost me a whopping $50 and when I opened the instructions they told me I had to give up junk food for two weeks. In any other universe I would have laughed and simply forgotten about detoxing my liver. But because I'd shelled out $50, I was invested - I decided that I hopefully wouldn't starve from lack of junk food over two weeks and suffered through it.
If I'd gotten the detox kit for free there's no way I would have followed those instructions. But because I was invested, I followed through and now have a healthier liver thanking me for it.
So when searching for the best diet, putting out some money on yourself and your dreams of a better body is actually a healthy thing. Just keep in mind that you shouldn't have to spend thousands of dollars on it.
#3 Compatible with Your Tastes and Lifestyle
This is THE most crucial step however it's the one where most people go wrong. When choosing a diet, they simply pick one and go, without considering if it is compatible with their tastes and lifestyle.
For example, if you hate feeling deprived or empty you might want to choose a program that lets you eat many times during the day so you don't feel hungry. If you get bored easily you want a diet program that gives you tremendous variety and flexibility. If you don't do a lot of cooking or food preparation, you'll want to look at a program where the food is pre-made for you.
Diets are like cars - there are hundreds of different models out there, each with their own unique features. And they can get you where you want to go. But your personality might gel better with certain features than others.
Dieting is hard enough. Don't make it harder on yourself by choosing a diet not compatible with who you are. Setting yourself up for success will also guarantee that you'll stick it out until you reach your goal.
And one other thing, the best diet will be one that you can get excited about. Choose a diet that you enjoy, that you believe in, that may actually be - gulp - fun.
Emotional excitement will fade in time, yes. But it can give you enough of an emotional push to get you over the initial hump. By that time your first few pounds will have come off and will serve as your continuing motivation.
So those are 3 key considerations when looking for the best diet. Keep them in mind and you will progress in leaps and bounds towards your dream body. Remember, planning now may seem boring - but it's the key to your future weight loss success.

Diabetic Diet: A Guide To Plan A Diet To Control Diabetes

Diabetic is a serious disease where the patient can suffer from major problems if he or she does not take proper care about controlling and treating it as directed by the doctor.
According to medical experts, a diabetic diet plays the major role in order to control the blood sugar levels in the body. Since diabetes is a chronic disease, it does not have any permanent cure. However, with proper care and treatment, one can expect to live a long and happy life with this disease.
A diabetic diet may either be used alone or in conjunction with insulin doses or oral hypoglycemic drug. The main aim of this diet is to balance the ideal body weight. This is done by providing requisite nutrition in conjunction with normal blood sugar levels in blood.
A medical expert usually takes the patient’s height, weight, age, sex, nature of diabetes and physical activity in to consideration prior to planning a diet. It is also important to consider certain complications such as high cholesterol levels and high blood pressure.
After considering all these factors, a dietician will analyze the number of calories to be provided to the patient via planning the proteins, carbohydrates, type of carbohydrates fats and amount of fiber one should take.
A common diet plan usually prescribed to patient with diabetes is an exchange meal plan. It is a program that effectively balances the amount of carbohydrates you take in to your body on a daily basis. Glucose is a type of sugar that carbohydrate releases. Hence, if you desire to control blood sugar, you require to restrict the simple carbohydrate consumption.
Carbohydrate foods are prescribed according to value per portion, referred to as exchange. This diabetic diet plan is helpful in deciding that type of food to be taken, time to eat and the amount of food that should be eaten.
You can even plan for flexible diet programs as you increase your knowledge related to the type of food that will benefit you and the type of foods you should completely avoid.
A) Here are certain crucial factors to be considered when planning a diabetes diet:
a) You should take at least 40 grams of fiber each day.
b) Don’t eat the traditional three heavy meals.
c) Divide your meal in to small food servings.
d) Have a lot of fresh fruit and vegetables daily.
e) Don’t consume bakery products.
f) Go for whole cooked cereals.
g) Avoid eating anything two hours before bed time.
The major goals of a diabetes diet is to balance your blood glucose levels, maintain healthy lipid levels, maintain a healthy weight and avoiding certain complications such as diseases related to kidney, feet, heart and the eyes.
B) Avoid the following food items when planning a diabetes diet:
a) Starchy foods such as white bread, pasta and potatoes
b) Sugars such as table sugar, honey, fruits and sweets
c) Artificially sweetened juices
d) Fried and processed food
e) Reduce salt intake.
C) The essential ingredients of a diabetic diet include the following:
a) Carbohydrates
b) Proteins
c) Fibers
d) Saturated fats

Diabetes And Genetics. Do We Have An Answer For It?

Although many diagnosed with diabetes have the disease somewhere in their family medical history, diabetes is not a disease that is inherited in any simple pattern.
First of all, Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes do not have the same causes. However, there are two factors that are involved in both: there must be an inherent predisposition for the disease and there must be a trigger for it.
Proof that genes alone are not enough to get diabetes can be found in the case of identical twins. Identical twins have identical genes, yet in cases where one twin is diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes there is only a 50% chance that the other twin will also develop the Type 1 diabetes. If the diagnosis is Type 2 diabetes, then the risk goes to 3 out of four for chance. A mixture of nature and environmental factors make it impossible to determine who will get diabetes and who will not.
Type 1 Diabetes
When it comes to Type 1 diabetes, people generally need to inherit risk factors from both sides of their family. These risk factors are very prevalent in Caucasian segments of the population. Still, even those who are at risk do not always get diabetes, prodding researchers to dig deeper into what possible environmental triggers there are that set off the disease.
Type 1 diabetes is known to occur more often in winter than in summer and therefore has researchers believing that cold weather is a possible trigger. Viruses are also suspected as a trigger as well as other auto-immune diseases. (Diseases in which the immune system attacks the body’s tissues.)
Type 2 Diabetes
Of the two types of diabetes, Type 2 has the stronger genetic base but depends a great deal more on environmental factors. The genetic predisposition for Type 2 diabetes mixed with those living in a Western lifestyle is an infamous cocktail for developing this disease. As is such with the great majority of the Western diet and lifestyle, too much fat and refined carbohydrates and not enough fiber coupled with inactivity has birthed this disease into epidemic proportions. As obesity rises, so do reports of diabetes. In comparison, those living in areas of the world that are not Westernized do not develop Type 2 diabetes despite their high genetic risk.
Gestational Diabetes.
Gestational diabetes, diabetes that develops during pregnancy, has no clear genetic or environmental triggers. Although women who develop the disease are more likely to have a family history of diabetes, it is unclear what other non-genetic factors play a role. Women who put off having children until their later years and women who are overweight seem to be the most common groups to be diagnosed but this is not always the case.
So what is the conclusion here? You can have the genetic risk, environment, and the lifestyle triggers, and still not develop diabetes. The other side is also true. Diabetes can develop without many of the triggers.
The only thing that we as a human race can do is limit the triggers for diabetes as much as we can. Eat healthy, exercise regularly, keep our weight under control and hope that our genes are in our favor.

Learn How to Obtain a Student Loan

When it comes to getting a college education, many students already know that they'll have to pay a very expensive price. Even though tuition keeps rising and rising, it seems as though students have no other choice than to take out student loans in order to pay for college and get that degree in order to provide financially and materially for their families.
Student loans are not a bad idea if one does intend to repay them, graduate from a college or university with a decent degree they can use, and successfully enter the working field in a career that will satisfy them and their goals. On the other hand, too often individuals decide to not only cut college, but they also decide to default on their student loans, which is not a good idea for anyone.
If you or someone you know, though, is going to attempt college for the first time in their life, then one of the best things to check out would be about student loans and everything that a person needs to know about them. It is actually fairly easy to obtain student loans, governmental or private, but the process of getting approved and obtaining them can be a little daunting.
Filling Out the FAFSA: The FAFSA form, which is the Free Application for Federal Student Aid, is the basic form that students entering any type of college or university should fill out in order to be eligible for financial aid and student loans that can be received from the government. While some of this government financial aid does include student grants, most of the financial help that is received by students comes in the form of student loans, such as the Perkins Loan or the Stafford Loan.
When the FAFSA Doesn't Cut It: Of course, there are plenty of other resources that one can look towards in order to obtain student loans. Private student lenders are usually always on the horizon whenever a student either has trouble obtaining federal student aid or simply attends an expensive college that requires more money than the federal government is able to give. These private student loan lenders are great assets to students if used in the right way.
One major benefit of using them is the fact that college students don't have to enter the repayment period for the loan until they are completely graduated from college with their career degree they intend to pursue. Of course, paying the interest on a private student loan is always an option for students, but it is something that is usually not required while the student is in school.
When obtaining student loans through a private source, there are several requirements of the student that needs to be met. First, the student usually should have good credit when applying. Even though this criterion has loosened up among private student loan lenders in recent years, it still would be a good idea to maintain a good credit report and history if one is to apply. Otherwise, a college student who is applying for a private student loan should be able to have a co-signer if he or she doesn't meet the credit requirements. Another criterion that is usually required of students is their ability to maintain a job while in school.
Student loans are definitely one of the main sources of money that many people use to pay for college in today's world. Unless and until colleges and universities are made more affordable and the price of tuition lowers, the amount of both federal and private student loans will definitely be on the rise.

Yoga Online Store

In Hindu thought, flow of life energy existing with in everyone. It is believed to lie coiled at the base of the spine, and by the practice of Kundalini yoga can be raised from the first chakra (centre of spiritual power) step by step to the seventh chakra at the top of the skull, burning away obstacles on the spiritual path.
As the literature of Kashmir Shaivism kundalini is described in three different manifestations. The first manifestation is as the universal energy or para-kundalini. The second manifestation is as the energizing function of the body-mind complex or prana-kundalini. The third one is as consciousness or shakti-kundalini which simultaneously subsumes and intermediates between these two. Ultimately these three forms are the same but understanding these three different forms will help to understand the different manifestations of kundalini.
The purpose of Kundalini Yoga is to control and overcome our base motivations and transcend the ego. Kundalini Yoga is a holistic practice and philosophy that brings personal benefits of rejuvenation and healing. Kundalini Yoga developed as a systematic method of expanding consciousness and maintaining the new awareness. Of particular importance is the strengthening of the nervous system to handle an increased frequency of current. Without this right development and guidance many people experience identity crisis and nervous breakdowns without knowing the real nature of the problem. There are different types sources on Kundalini yoga are available with yogabestbuy.com like
Kundalini Yoga - The Complete Set of 6 DVDs - Nirvair Singh Khalsa
Kundalini Yoga for Athletes - DVD - Nirvair Singh Khalsa
An Introduction to Kundalini Yoga and Chanting DVD
Add Grace and Prosperity with Kundalini Yoga - DVD- Nirvair Singh Khalsa

Kundalini Yogi has both Bhukti means enjoyment and Mukti means liberation in the literal sense. So this Kundalini Yogi is claimed to be the foremost of all Yogas. "Kundalini is the energy of the Divine as it is experienced in the individual. Kundalini binds us when we project its energy into the world and yet, Kundalini liberates us when we return this energy to its divine origin."

To understand the movement of Kundalini better, you must have adequate knowledge of the Nervous System, particularly the spinal cord. This is because the Seven Chakras are believed to be found in this area of the body. A happier life can be ours. We can stimulate creativity, increase mental energy, heighten concentration and experience greater joy with Kundalini Yoga.

Enzyme kinetics is the study of the chemical reactions that are catalysed by enzymes, with a focus on their reaction rates. The study of an enzyme's kinetics reveals the catalytic mechanism of this enzyme, its role in metabolism, how its activity is controlled, and how a drug or a poison might inhibit the enzyme.
Enzymes are usually protein molecules that manipulate other molecules — the enzymes' substrates. These target molecules bind to an enzyme's active site and are transformed into products through a series of steps known as the enzymatic mechanism. These mechanisms can be divided into single-substrate and multiple-substrate mechanisms. Kinetic studies on enzymes that only bind one substrate, such as triosephosphate isomerase, aim to measure the affinity with which the enzyme binds this substrate and the turnover rate.
When enzymes bind multiple substrates, such as dihydrofolate reductase (shown right), enzyme kinetics can also show the sequence in which these substrates bind and the sequence in which products are released. An example of enzymes that bind a single substrate and release multiple products are proteases, which cleave one protein substrate into two polypeptide products. Others join two substrates together, such as DNA polymerase linking a nucleotide to DNA. Although these mechanisms are often a complex series of steps, there is typically one rate-determining step that determines the overall kinetics. This rate-determining step may be a chemical reaction or a conformational change of the enzyme or substrates, such as those involved in the release of product(s) from the enzyme.
Knowledge of the enzyme's structure is helpful in interpreting the kinetic data. For example, the structure can suggest how substrates and products bind during catalysis; what changes occur during the reaction; and even the role of particular amino acid residues in the mechanism. Some enzymes change shape significantly during the mechanism; in such cases, it is helpful to determine the enzyme structure with and without bound substrate analogs that do not undergo the enzymatic reaction.
Not all biological catalysts are protein enzymes; RNA-based catalysts such as ribozymes and ribosomes are essential to many cellular functions, such as RNA splicing and translation. The main difference between ribozymes and enzymes is that the RNA catalysts perform a more limited set of reactions, although their reaction mechanisms and kinetics can be analysed and classified by the same methods.

Online Tutoring – The Latest Trend!

Imagine if you could study anytime you want… after school, after football match gets over, early morning or late nights. Imagine if your studies would not be restricted to a prescribed syllabus and you could learn about anything you want under the sun. Yes all this has been made possible for the students. It’s the world of cyber education now and we are lucky to be born in this age!
We are talking about the latest trend in education industry – online tutoring. It is a platform wherein students interact with teachers on the internet enabled computer systems. With the help of supporting software and voice chats, they discuss subjects and problems on the screen, which acts like a white board. It’s a real time exchange of information. Best part is the teachers are available 24 hours online. So whenever a student has any doubt, be it a night before the exam or on the last day of project submission, whatever help he needs is just a mouse-click away.
“I’ve improved from a C grade to an A now. This has been possible only because now I can decide upon my own study time and thus concentrate 100%. I’m not dependent upon fixed home private tuitions”, said Dennis, a seventh grade student. This is true for millions of students across the states of America. Flexibility of time gives room for doing many more things as well. Students are able to balance their studies along with other activities like extra-curricular activities, playing games, adequate sleep etc. Since they are not under any time-pressure, they are able to perform better with a free mind.
Online tutoring industry is bustling with many new companies providing variety of educational services online. Some of the established online tutoring companies like Trans web tutors (www.transwebtutors.com), Tutor Vista, and Smart Thinking are now known to provide high quality guidance not only for K-12 studies but also pre-college and college level studies. Trans web tutors also provides test series for standardised test like SAT, GMAT, GRE etc. They are offering a package of unlimited online tutoring for just $99 per month, unbelievable isn’t it? These online tutoring companies have a pool of teachers from all across the world who are highly specialised in their subjects like Mathematics, English, Science, and Social Science. In fact, outsourcing to some Asian countries has given a boost to this industry. Since these companies also get their services outsourced to Asian countries, they are able to provide such high quality education at as low a price as $20 an hour.
“No Child Left Behind Act”, the recent law passed by the government, has been a thrust towards this direction of boosting online tutoring. The schools are required to monitor the performance of students from time to time and thus schools are encouraging extra tuitions sessions. Since the No child left behind act passed in 2001 the schools that were lagging behind in educational standards have tightened their belts. The law makes these schools to help the students lagging behind in studies by way of private tutorials which have led to the growth of the online tutoring segment. As many people are enrolling their wards at these online tutoring centres rather then sending them to expensive private tutors.
Apart from basic studies, online tutoring companies are now also providing career planning and counselling sessions to help the students.
“It has been a blessing for my child. He’s able to learn and grow with online tutoring sessions more than at his school!” says a thankful parent of a ninth grade student. Online tutoring is indeed a blessing for the quality-starved American education system. The segment of online educational services has seen a boom. And this boom is not only sustainable but it will grow to great heights. Online tutoring is the future of the tomorrow!

Working While In School: Is It Worth The Effort?

There are dozens of ways to pay for a college education—scholarships, student loans, federal grants, and working. Definitely the best way to pay for your schooling is through scholarships you earned before you stepped foot on campus, but not all of us are that lucky. But even if you are that lucky... you may want to consider getting a job anyhow, but more about that later.

University Scholarships

One of the greatest surprises I found while working on my undergraduate degree was that through good grades I could be awarded a scholarship from the University. This is common at Universities around the country but rarely publicized. Contact your financial aid office to see what is available at your school. Once I learned about the scholarships (I didn't get any in high school, going into college) I worked hard to get good marks. After good grades my freshman year I was given a full tuition scholarship for my second year. My grades dipped but I was still awarded at least half-tuition for my next three years of school.

Part-time Work

With staggering tuition prices it is expected that most students will work at least a few hours each week so they won't have to rely solely on student loans or mum and dad’s bank account. Part-time work allows you to: Perfect time-management skills necessary for academic success, reduce your need for student loans and the resulting indebtedness, and gain career-related experience as you clarify goals, acquire skills and self-confidence, and build a network of contacts. There has been some debate about how much students should work but there seems to be a general consensus that on-campus jobs at 20 hours a week or less seems to be a good idea. Studies show that students who work up to 30 hours a week do just as well or even better academically than those who don't. Working only 12-15 hours a week (as most students do) shouldn't affect your grades.
U.S. News wrote an interesting article showing the other benefits of working while in school. Chief among the benefits listed is the career experience you might get.

Working on-campus

One of the best ways of paying for school is by working for the school. Studies show that students who work on campus are more likely to persist in their studies. Through your job, you'll become better acquainted with faculty, staff, and other students. There are hundreds of jobs available to students at most Universities and many of these jobs will open doors for you and your future career. Look for jobs in labs or other areas that will give you experience in your chosen career path. You should also try to find a job that gives you time with a potential mentor, preferably a professor in your area of study. The more time you are able to spent with those who are working in your field the better—they will be able to help and guide you in making important decisions about your schooling and career. If you can’t get the “dream job” right away don’t be discouraged. Get another job and start making contacts… things always seem to open up if you look long enough.

Summer jobs

I don't understand why so many students go home for the summer, but they do. You might want to consider staying... the impossible to get on-campus jobs open up and you can be there to snatch them up. Summer school is also a great way to get ahead and scholarships and other financial aid is usually easier to procure for summer term. Use the summer months to work hard and opportunities to climb important ladders will likely appear. Take advantage of all the resources that are available to you: faculty and other mentors, labs, clubs, etc. During the summer it is much easier to take advantage of people and places as the traffic and demand for these things is significantly lower.

Internships

Another really smart thing to do over the summer is to take advantage of an internship. These will take you out into the community and give you invaluable job experience. Start early looking for these opportunities—talk to faculty advisors, counselors, and check out the web for potential opportunities.

Whatever you decide to do, try to pay for as much schooling as possible now. Students loans seem to suck the life blood out of many and extreme debt is an easy trap to fall into. With all the benefits of working, even if it’s only a few hours a week, it makes much more sense to get a job and work your way through.

Money Making With Google AdSense

The foundation of Internet Marketing is built on the premise of creating multiple streams of income. There are many ways to pull in profits with an online business opportunity. Google AdSense is a program that lets Internet Marketers take full advantage of their website's traffic by letting them profit from relevant ads by getting paid for both impressions and clicks. One of the best Internet Marketing principles you can master is the art of driving traffic to your site. That knowledge comes through learning about search engine optimization, using content and links to direct visitors to your website, and other advanced techniques that enhance your online business opportunity. If you know the power of getting hits to your site, then you'll be able to multiply your profits - not just by selling a product or service - but by using Google AdSense in your marketing strategy. If you pass on a good online business opportunity such as using AdSense to get the most out of your traffic, then you could be passing up thousands of dollars each month in potential profits. Making money on the 'net revolves around being able to reach prospective customers. Without good traffic sense, you can't make money from programs like Google AdSense that are willing to hand out cash. No matter how great your product is or how appealing your website may be - if it's empty, your bank account will be too. Google AdSense is one online business opportunity that provides passive income from a source you don't have to work hard to maintain. No other similar program has the branding that Google AdSense has. It's a familiar name for those who browse the 'net and when you allow visitors to utilize the Google Search Tool from your site, ads that fit in with your site's basic theme will let you profit from clicks and impressions. Google AdSense also lets you test the ads on your site for effectiveness. By using channels, you can get a quick view of your website or pages within a site and compare the performance of the AdSense campaign. By testing your efforts, you can optimize your online business opportunity and tweak any Google AdSense campaigns that need help with their performance. Men and women who are interested in launching a home-based business that centers around the Internet as an avenue for harvesting their income must first learn the power of successful web traffic techniques. Once that step has been achieved, they can employ programs such as Google AdSense to customize the performance of each page within their site. They'll rake in unimaginable profits just by signing up for an online business opportunity that offers a virtual hands-off way to make money. For those just starting out - or want to hone their existing knowledge and skills for becoming an Internet Marketing success story - software may be the answer that helps them increase their traffic and take advantage of Google AdSense. Everyone wants to generate a steady stream of online profits - but without traffic and without passive income - they'll be working twice as hard to earn half the amount of money. Google AdSense has different types of ad campaigns you can put together. Text ads come in the form of banners of all sizes - from leader board to button sized. Image ads also use banner positioning to attract the eye of your traffic. They also offer units of text links if you prefer to just have content in your AdSense campaign. Online business opportunities will come and go. But Google AdSense looks promising as a strong investment of very little of your time in exchange for financial rewards that - if used on a good number of sites - can add up to big profits. The AdSense program is free to use. All you have to do is sign up and once approved, start using the traffic techniques you've learned to attract visitors and make money when and if they leave your site and click-through to another strategically placed ad. You have complete control over your Google AdSense campaigns. If you see ads that are relevant to your site, but you'd rather not showcase there, all you have to do is use the filtering tool and the traffic you've earned won't see that link again. There are many advantages to building an empire around an online business opportunity and profiting from targeted traffic is like succeeding in direct mail promotions - only using modern technology. With Google AdSense, you'll revel in your site's enhancement and use it as a viral tool in making money from multiple resources.

Earning A Health Care Degree Online Is Possible

Many people enjoy working in the health care field, the career being an attractive one for many reasons. After all, you're helping others, the job opportunities abound and the field of medicine is an exciting one that's developing constantly. A career in health care is an exciting one, with hands-on experience and being personally satisfying. However, individuals wanting to break into the medical world need strong credentials and up-to-date training to have good employment opportunities with hospitals, private practices and ambulatory care centers. Finding that training can be difficult, but there are options available, thanks to technology and a widening recognition of virtual instruction. Obtaining a health care degree online is a smart choice for landing satisfying employment.
Online education is transforming the way individuals receive instruction for top careers. The fields of opportunities are expanding and being able to earn your health care degree online is a perfect example of just how far education has come. Accredited universities and colleges provide high-quality instruction, leading to Bachelors and Masters Degrees that are recognized by employers. The training has a leading reputation amongst hospitals and health care facilities of all kinds, making individuals valuable assets to the medical field.
Obtaining your health care degree online can help with upward mobility on the ladder of success and increase job opportunities in the medical field. Expanding your education can improve communication skills and promote individual value to the mid-level management section, allowing students to respond to ever-widening community diversity. Interpreting and analyzing data as well as identifying human values, moral choices and fundamental beliefs are just part of what a health care degree online can provide to individuals. Courses within this field of online education touch on varied subjects, such as anatomy, legal issues, the aging process and research methods.
There are other reasons why pursuing a health care degree online is advantageous. Education in the virtual world allows students to easily balance studies with employment, meaning that individuals can continue to work and earn income while earning credits towards a degree in their own time. Home life, education and employment blend very easily, allowing students to combine all three areas of their lives without needing to take time off work to study or put off raising children to obtain an education. Also, pursuing an online degree allows individuals to save money on costs of transportation and commuting to educational facilities or having to pay for lodgings on or near a campus.
Employment opportunities in the health care field are continually broadening as the world's population ages. Research and technology allow people to live longer, providing ample careers to those who pursue a profession in the medical field. As our population of senior citizens continues to expand, the needs for skilled professionals able to tend to individuals increases and finding employment is usually easy, for those who have the qualifications and credentials of accredited educational facilities. Top schools and universities have responded to the demands and offer excellent, recognized training to students in a manner that matches the technological revolution of today's computer-based world.
Government offices continually demand high-quality workers and their predictions claim that having solid training is a must for those entering the health care world. Consumers and clients of hospitals, private practices, ambulatory care centers and home health agencies are also asking for better-quality care from those who tend to their needs. The advantages to earning a health care degree from a reputable educational facility are many and the long-term results will provide individuals with solid, satisfying and exciting careers